Special Journal Edition: Drinking Water and Health



Three Potential Sources of Microfungi
in a Treated Municipal Water
Supply System in Sub-Tropical Australia.



A new special edition of papers dealing with a wide range of health issues of drinking water has been published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health and edited by Professor Nick Gray.

The full reference and online access is:
Gray, N.F. (2012) (editor) Drinking Water and Health. A special issue of the  International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8-9, (ISSN 1660-4601).
Link to papers:




List of papers:
• Maxine Burton, Emma Cobb, Peter Donachie, Gaby Judah, Val Curtis and Wolf-Peter Schmidt. Article: The Effect of Handwashing with Water or Soap on Bacterial Contamination of Hands. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8(1), 97-104; doi:10.3390/ijerph801009

• Virgínia M. Siqueira, Helena M. B. Oliveira, Cledir Santos, R. Russell M. Paterson, Norma B. Gusmão and Nelson Lima: Review: Filamentous Fungi in Drinking Water, Particularly in Relation to Biofilm Formation. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8(2), 456-469; doi:10.3390/ijerph8020456

• Zhihua Hu, Lois Wright Morton and Robert L. Mahler. Article: Bottled Water: United States Consumers and Their Perceptions of Water Quality. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8(2), 565-578; doi:10.3390/ijerph8020565

• Noel B. Sammon, Keith M. Harrower, Larelle D. Fabbro and Rob H. Reed. Article: Three Potential Sources of Microfungi in a Treated Municipal Water Supply System in Sub-Tropical Australia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8(3), 713-732; doi:10.3390/ijerph8030713

• Mark Ibekwe, Shelton E. Murinda and Alexandria K. Graves. Article: Microbiological Evaluation of Water Quality from Urban Watersheds for Domestic Water Supply Improvement. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8(12), 4460-4476; doi:10.3390/ijerph8124460

• Jocelyne K. Mwabi, Bhekie B. Mamba and Maggy N. B. Momba. Article: Removal of Escherichia coli and Faecal Coliforms from Surface Water and Groundwater by Household Water Treatment Devices/Systems: A Sustainable Solution for Improving Water Quality in Rural Communities of the Southern African Development Community Region. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9(1), 139-170; doi:10.3390/ijerph9010139

• Kyle Onda, Joe LoBuglio and Jamie Bartram. Article: Global Access to Safe Water: Accounting for Water Quality and the Resulting Impact on MDG Progress. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9(3), 880-894; doi:10.3390/ijerph9030880

• Jason Roberge, Mary Kay O’Rourke, Maria Mercedes Meza-Montenegro, Luis Enrique Gutiérrez-Millán, Jefferey L. Burgess and Robin B. Harris. Article: Binational Arsenic Exposure Survey: Methodology and Estimated Arsenic Intake from Drinking Water and Urinary Arsenic Concentrations. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9(4), 1051-1067; doi:10.3390/ijerph9041051

• Robert Bain, Jamie Bartram, Mark Elliott, Robert Matthews, Lanakila McMahan, Rosalind Tung, Patty Chuang and Stephen Gundry. Article: A Summary Catalogue of Microbial Drinking Water Tests for Low and Medium Resource Settings. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9(5), 1609-1625; doi:10.3390/ijerph9051609

• Jyotsna S. Jagai, Jeffrey K. Griffiths, Paul K. Kirshen, Patrick Webb and Elena N. Naumova. Article: Seasonal Patterns of Gastrointestinal Illness and Streamflow along the Ohio River. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9(5), 1771-1790; doi:10.3390/ijerph9051771

• Catherine D. Luyt, Roman Tandlich, Wilhelmine J. Muller and Brendan S. Wilhelmi. Review: Microbial Monitoring of Surface Water in South Africa: An Overview. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9(8), 2669-2693; doi:10.3390/ijerph9082669

• Piergiorgio Bolasco, Antonio Contu, Patrizia Meloni, Dorio Vacca and Andrea Galfrè. Article: Microbiological Surveillance and State of the Art Technological Strategies for the Prevention of Dialysis Water Pollution. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9(8), 2758-2771; doi:10.3390/ijerph9082758

Irish Water will become a subsidiary of Bord Gáis

The Government announced today that the new State water authority Irish Water will become a subsidiary of Bord Gáis (The State owned Irish Gas Company). The formation of a new State Water Authority is to be welcomed as it will for the first time facilitate the provision of water, sewerage and wastewater to be operated holistically. It may also allow Irish Consumers, for the first time, to have the same rights as water consumers in other countries and a proper route for the handling of complaints about water quality, something that is currently lacking in Ireland. On the whole the County Councils and Local Authorities have done an amazing job over the years and to some extent it is sad to see this come to an end. However, the senior management in County Councils didn’t rise to the challenge and have now lost one of their key roles.

In some areas local authorities have failed to react to the real needs of consumers and the poor provision in some areas, often linked with poor planning decisions, has left us with complex supply and sewage treatment problems. However, hidden away in water and wastewater treatment plants around the country we have a wealth of fantastic technical and operational personnel with extensive expertise, which I hope will now be allowed to play a more central role in the operation and management of our water services.

We must be very careful to remember that in all the hype about charges there are real public health issues at the core of this change as well as the environmental issues. Personally I would have preferred to have seen a standalone Water Authority similar to those in the UK prior to privatization based on regional areas where staff, equipment and expertise could be shared. Ireland is small enough to have based these on our existing River Basin Districts and to have had the catchment management functions associated with River Basin Management Plans also come under their auspices. Apart from knowing how to collect revenue and lay pipes, I am at a loss to know what Bord Gáis can bring to this critically important and technically very different industry.

The water industry represents a massive and continuous investment by the tax payer for over a century and it should not be allowed to be asset stripped by the private sector, although it is unlikely that with its small size, dispersed population and the complex arrangement with Group Water Schemes that it will prove to be an attractive investment for some time to come. I wish Water Ireland well, but hope that it creates a sustainable water infrastructure for the future and prosperity of Ireland.

Crap in a Bag Could Change the World?

Introducing the Peepoo. This is a novel approach to improving sanitation while at the same time creating useful biomass and fertilizer. The use of night soil has been exploited by farmers for centuries, but the introduction of the Peepoo is a clever idea to prevent disease transmission and to generate income in developing countries.
The Peepoo is a biodegradable plastic bag 14 x 38 cm which people use as a portable toilet. The bag contains urea powder which reacts with the urine and faeces helping decomposition but also raising the pH. Pathogens are inactivated within 2-4 weeks depending on the temperature. The bioplastic is made from a mixture of aromatic co-polyesters and polylactone acid (PLA), with small additives of wax and lime. With time these degrade in the soil to release the N and P as well as adding vital water retaining biomass to the soil. As fertilizer is expensive in developing countries many local suppliers of Peepoo bags pay a small refund if the bag is returned full. These are then stored in heaps and allowed to slowly degrade producing a sellable nutrient enriched biomass for local farmers. One person using the bags for a year is equivalent to an artificial fertilizer loading of 6 kg urea 2 kg Total P and 1 kg potash.

World Water Week

Each year the Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI) hosts World Water in Stockholm. Since 2009 the massive event which consists of a large range of seminars, workshops, lectures and visits has been dealing with the issues around Responding to Global Changes. This year the main theme is Water in an Urbanising World. You can be involved by using the extensive official website. Link

Some Thoughts on the E.coli Outbreak in Germany

I suppose the many hundreds of students who have attended my introductory lectures on wastewater treatment can attest to my call for the past thirty years for microbial standards to be placed on wastewater treatment plants, and in particular to focus more closely on pathogen removal during treatment.  Wastewater treatment plants, especially activated sludge reactors, are ideal places for new strains of bacteria and antibiotic resistance to develop.  Our simple barrier approach to pathogen control based largely on dilution of effluents and the disinfection of drinking water has served us well, but the reuse of wastewater effluents, contaminated surface and ground waters are all direct routes to the food chain.  While the source of the current outbreak of E. coli  in Germany remains unknown, we should not rule out the very high possibility of such a link.  The need for better operational management coupled with final effluent disinfection to deal with pathogen release from treatment plants must be put on the agenda for a revised Urban Wastewater Directive, where emphasis is placed equally on both environmental and public health protection. 

Haiti Cholera Outbreak Continues but Origin Sourced

Cholera is still dominating the lives of those living in Haiti.  Since the original post on the 22nd October 2010, some 5,000 people have died and 300,000 have become ill.  A recent report has linked the original outbreak to a poorly constructed wastewater treatment system that was built to serve UN troops from Nepal that were based at a rural camp close to the Meye River.  The basic septic tanks leaked into this river which is a tributary of the country’s main river, the Artibonite, which runs through the central region of Haiti, and the major source of water for many tens of thousands of rural Haitians.  However, the lack of suitable  water and sanitation, which has still not been restored since the earthquake, is also a major factor for the continuation of this epidemic.

Today is Word Water Day!

The theme of this year’s World Water Day is ‘Water for cities: responding to the urban challenge’.

Word Water Day 22nd March 2011

The theme of this year’s World Water Day is ‘Water for cities: responding to the urban challenge’. The aim is to focus attention of all stakeholders to the challenge of urban water management to deal with the impact of rapid urban population growth, industrialization and uncertainties caused by climate change, conflicts and natural disasters on urban water systems. Link

Drinking Water and Health: A Collection of New Research Papers

A wide range of exciting research papers have been published in Dinking Water and Health a special edition of the on-line International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health  edited by Professor N.F. Gray from Trinity College Dublin. Leading researchers from around the world have contributed papers.

Reviews:
• New Perspectives in Monitoring Drinking Water Microbial Quality Mª José Figueras and Juan J. Borrego

• Human Health Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals in Water: Issues and Challenges Ahead Arun Kumar, Biao Chang and Irene Xagoraraki

• Inadequately Treated Wastewater as a Source of Human Enteric Viruses in the Environment Anthony I. Okoh, Thulani Sibanda and Siyabulela S. Gusha

• Water Microbiology. Bacterial Pathogens and Water  João P. S. Cabral

Original Research Papers:
• An Assessment of the Interindividual Variability of Internal Dosimetry during Multi-Route Exposure to Drinking Water Contaminants  Mathieu Valcke and Kannan Krishnan

• Determinants of Use of Household-level Water Chlorination Products in Rural Kenya, 2003–2005 Amy E. DuBois, John A. Crump, Bruce H. Keswick, Laurence Slutsker, Robert E. Quick, John M. Vulule and Stephen P. Luby

• Determinants of Arsenicosis Patients’ Perception and Social Implications of Arsenic Poisoning through Groundwater in Bangladesh M. Mizanur Rahman Sarker

• Different Length (DL) qPCR for Quantification of Cell Killing by UV-induced DNA Damage Knut Rudi, Irina Hagen, Bente Carina Johnsrud, Guro Skjefstad and Ingun Tryland

• Factors Associated to Endemic Dental Fluorosis in Brazilian Rural Communities Efigênia F. Ferreira, Andréa Maria D. Vargas, Lia S. Castilho, Leila Nunes M. Velásquez, Lucia M. Fantinel and Mauro Henrique N. G. Abreu

• Incidence and Distribution of Microfungi in a Treated Municipal Water Supply System in Sub-Tropical Australia Noel B. Sammon, Keith M. Harrower, Larelle D. Fabbro and Rob H. Reed

Asbestos Exposure? Act Now!

The risk from asbestos in drinking water is still under debate, but for all of us in the water industry asbestos is all around us and it is inevitable that many of us will have been exposed to airborne asbestos at some time, especially in the past when awareness was not so acute. MesotheliomaSymptoms.com is an extensive database of information and resources to better understand the symptoms of mesothelioma, as well as asbestosis, and the various aspects of diagnosis, prognosis, treatment, and many other factors of survival.  Symptoms of mesothelioma usually do not appear for 20 to 50 years after asbestos exposure, however those who think they may have been exposed should check out the website.

Waste Framework Directive: Public Consultation

Ireland is in the process of bringing the EU Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC) into Irish law through the provision of new regulations.  The Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government are now calling for comments and/or submissions on the draft regulations.  These must be forwarded to Gerry Byrne by 26 November, 2010 as Member States must complete the process by 12 December.  To access the draft regulations use this link.

Weil’s Disease (Leptospirosis)

Olympic rowing champion Andy Holmes died last week after contracting Weil’s disease (leptospirosis).  This tragic news highlights the risk to all those working with water and sewage, and of course those who use inland water for recreation, from this waterborne bacterial disease.  Globally up to 10 million people contract the disease each year, although the number of reported cases of the disease in the British Isles is around 100-150 people annually, with farmers, sewage workers, freshwater ecologists and water sport participants (i.e. canoeists, wind surfers and rowers) all in the high risk category.  Advice on safe working practices for those engaged in freshwater monitoring and research can be found in sections 9.2.3 and 13.6 in Water Technology.  The primary infection route for leptospirosis is through damaged skin. So no matter how minor the damage may be (e.g. scratches, rashes etc.) ensure that the area is covered by an effective waterproof barrier if there is a possibility that the skin will come into contact with water potentially contaminated with rat urine (i.e. almost all surface waters). For more information Link.

US Water Infrastructure to be Upgraded

US EPA has announced a new national policy to deal with its aging water infrastructure.  The policy intends to upgrade systems using a range of sustainable options that will be able to deal with the potential storm water issues caused by climate change as well replacing aging systems. Link New York alone has  12,000 km of sewer most now fairly old and either overloaded or in need of replacement. Recently a plan was unveiled to spent $1.5 billion on upgrading their sewerage system to reduce CSOs dumping in excess of 110 billion litres of contaminated water each year into New York surface waters. This upgrade will include a range of sustainable urban drainage options from  green roofs to porous pavements to reduce the volume of surface water going to sewer.

Ballast Water and the Control of Invasive Species and Pathogens

Following on from Don's comment below there is now a large body of evidence that both invasive species and pathogens can be transferred by ballast water between ports. My previous comment really referred to the acceptance of this problem and making it part our existing barrier approach to pathogen control. There is an excellent website operated by the GEF/UNDP/IMO Global Ballast Water Management Programme (GloBallast) which is supported by the International Maritime Organization. It looks at the evidence and up to date research, including international regulations, concerning ballast water treatment and management. The site provides numerous technical reports and guidelines that can be downloaded. Link

Transfer of Cholera via Ballast Water?

It is very difficult to predict when Cholera outbreaks may occur, with low levels of infection common in many countries with cases being confused with other diarrhoeal diseases.  It is an opportunistic pathogen taking advantage of poor sanitation which so often occurs as a result of disasters and conflict. What is clear is that Cholera is both widespread and increasing in frequency with the WHO estimating between 3 to 5 million cases last year. There are two strains of Vibrio cholerae, 01 which has been identified as the cause of the current epidemic in Haiti, and the South-East Asian strain 0139. It is thought that up to 75% of people infected with the bacterium may not develop symptoms but will excrete the bacterium with their faeces for up to 14 days. So the increase in air travel is often cited as the cause of smaller outbreaks.  There is also increasing concern that the bacterium can be transported via water and algae held in ballast tanks in ships which when discharged can contaminate surface waters and shellfish.  

New Cholera Outbreak Reported

Cholera strikes again, this time in Haiti. Of all the waterborne diseases cholera is probably the most dangerous and can prove fatal if medical attention is not obtained within a very short time of the symptoms emerging.  A new review by João P. S. Cabral entitled Water Microbiology: Bacterial Pathogens and Water has just been published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (2010, 7, 3657-3703) and looks at the disease in detail.  The last reported outbreak of the disease in Haiti was in 1960.

Water Treatment Plants Turn to UV for Cryptosporidium Control

There is no doubt about it but Cryptosporidium remains a major threat to water supplies throughout Europe. Following an outbreak in 2005 Dwr Cymru (Welsh Water) has upgraded the Cwellyn Water Treatment Works which serves 76,000 consumers in North Wales, including Bangor and south Anglesey, at a cost of €15 million. The upgrade, carried out by Black & Veatch and supported by Mulcair, includes the installation of ultra violet treatment as well as several new treatment stages. The upgrade is part of a wider £200 million investment throughout Wales to improve the security of water quality in our supply area.

Stockholm Water Prize 2010

World Water Week, the annual conference organized by the Stokholm International Water Institute ended last week with the announcement of the prestigious Stockholm Water prize to Dr Rita Colwel for her exceptional contribution in the control of the spread of cholera, a waterborne pathogen that infects 3 to 5 million people and leads to an estimated 120,000 deaths each year. The citation reads ‘Through her groundbreaking research, innovations and decades of scientific leadership, she has defined our current understanding of the ecology of infectious diseases and developed the use of advanced technologies to halt their spread. Her work has established the basis for environmental and infectious disease risk assessment used around the world.’ Link

Cholera outbreak in Nigeria

Cholera is normally associated with disaster and war-torn areas and so the current outbreak in Nigeria is particularly worrying and reminds me of the 1991 outbreak in that country when nearly 8,000 people died. The current outbreak has infected over 13,000 people in just two months of which 780 have sadly lost their lives. Latest reports are that the outbreak is spreading to the neighbouring countries of Cameroon, Chad and Niger. The cause appears to be poor sanitation which has been exacerbated by heavy seasonal rainfall contaminating water supplies. Half of Nigeria's population of 150 million is without access to clean water or proper sanitation, putting the whole country at risk from the current outbreak. While death can be prevented by rapid medical intervention, which is difficult in rural areas; cholera can only be contained by good personal hygiene and access to clean water.

The royalties from my book Drinking water Quality go to WaterAid who work in Nigeria to help establish sustainable water supplies and latrines and to influence government policy to serve the interests of vulnerable people. If you can help this wonderful organization then please do.